Ambayeba Muimba-Kankolongo, in Food Crop Production by Smallholder Farmers in Southern Africa, 2018. The secondary regrowth, together with food crops, provides a good habitat for certain wildlife species such as rodents and game birds. Agroforestry is just one of many ways in which farmers faced both with the need to produce more food and with increasing scarcity of land and deteriorating soil can transform shifting cultivation into a more positive and productive cropping system which can be practiced in full harmony with the natural surroundings and the needs of their human occupants. The group, however, became a coherent social unit with a leader and team of elders responsible for ensuring peace among members and settling potential boundary disputes. An exception is the wealth of data on reduced soil erosion as a result of reduced or zero tillage. It is unique in that crops are grown in a field covered by ashes made from burning piles of branches obtained by lopping and chopping trees from an area (outfield) 10 times larger than the ash … Crop and animal management requires numerous and often frequent decisions to be made as conditions change that are often stimulated by visual, difficult to measure changes. In short fallow rotations, where the fallow length is insufficient to deplete the weed seed bank, some farmers delay the burn until a flush of weeds has germinated. Ph. The bush fallow system of farming is widely practised in all the agroecological zones of the Volta Basin. Some considerations for agro-silviculture development in the shifting cultivation areas of Liberia. Jhum Cultivation and its practiced areas. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. shifting cultivation as practiced in tropical countries in general, I will focus my analysis on shifting cultivation in West and Central Africa. Production trend of gum Arabic production in Sudan from 1950 to 2014. La culture traditionnelle dans le sud-ouest de la Côte-d'Ivoire (région de Tai): le système Oubi confronté aux pratiques agricoles des Baoulés immigrés. Subscribers to Unasylva will find enclosed in this issue a new FAO document, entitled Forest resources 1980. ; 13, black pepper and cupuacu; 14, black pepper; 15, passion fruit and cupuacu; 16, pasture grasses; 17, black pepper and clearing (reproduced with permission from Subler and Uhl, 1990). It originated when groups of people organized themselves to purchase lands, which were distributed on the basis of individuals’ capital contribution. The consumption of energy, as well as the wear and tear of tractors and implements, increases steeply as the depth of tillage increases. There are also the grassland vegetations that include wetland and dambos around ephemeral rivers. An essential task of agriculture is soil structure management, as it affects water infiltration and runoff, wind erosion and evaporation, gas exchange processes, as well as planting and germination of crops. Figures are given by region and by country for total coniferous and non-coniferous forest; for closed forest and other wooded land area; for total land area occupied by forest; and for fallows and shrubs not included in the forest area. JURION, F. & HENRY, J. In other cases, secondary “light” tillage is performed in lieu of primary tillage in soils that are naturally loose and require no primary tillage at all. The ashes add potash to the soil. Figure 4. Ibadan, Nigeria, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Accordingly, it relies on remote sensing and monitoring of the field to determine the space-variable and time-variable requirements for all inputs and interventions. With the rising cost of fuel, the costs of tillage also increase progressively. It is mainly practiced in Hilly areas. D. thesis, University of London. Based on work by Dr M. Tiffen. in shifting cultivation, farmers clear the land for planting by _____ vegetation and _____ the debris. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0123485304004859, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095489092952, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123847195001258, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B012226865200242X, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128143834000062, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123847034005189, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128120026000026, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123485366500186, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128169629000053, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0122268652000080, Shifting Cultivation Versus Sustainable Intensification, Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), Food Crop Production by Smallholder Farmers in Southern Africa, Vulnerability of Water Resources to Climate, Management Practices of Gum Arabic–Producing Trees, Zeinab Mohamed Hammad, Mohammed Hamed Mohammed, in. Farnham Royal, UK, Commonwealth Agriculture Bureaux. Tillage operations are especially consumptive of energy. The diversity of land use provided a wide range of ecosystem services, including precipitation management, groundwater recharge, wildlife habitat, an environment usually conducive to adequate pest-predator balance, and some mitigation of harsh climatic conditions. On a global scale, under conditions of high population density, small farms, and the need for producing a wide array of products in often marginal production environments, a very diverse type of farm enterprise mix is common. There are several soil-related and climate-related constraints (Table 1) that must be alleviated. Wet summer, dry winter. Paper presented at the Workshop on Agroforestry in the African Humid Tropics, University of Ibadan. Boserup (1970) was the first to propose that the high incidence of polygyny in sub-Saharan Africa is rooted in the sexual division of labor in hoe-farming and the large economic contribution of women. The document has been prepared in conjunction with FAO's International Year of the Forest. An anthropological approach to social forestry: the study of indigenous agroforestry systems. 1, Cacao, erythrina; 2, household area; 3, coconut, citrus, mangosteen, and graviola; 4, cacao, erythrina, andiroba, and Brazil nut; 5, secondary forest regeneration; 6, cacao, vanilla, palheteira, and freijo; 7, cacao and paric&; 8, rubber trees; 9, rubber trees, black pepper, and cacao; 10, rubber trees and passion fruit; 11, black pepper and cacao; 12, cacao, banana, and Cecropia sp. A major benefit to crop rotation would be ... Q. Mediterranean agriculture must be practiced in a climate that is. 2, technology T2), agricultural output can be maintained at a much higher level for a given amount of ecosystem disturbance. They would allow each cultivated plot to recover its vegetation and fertility for some fifteen or twenty years before returning to it. It is prevalent not only in India but in other countries of Asia, Africa, South America and Australia. The system is destabilized by long cultivation and short fallow periods. Paysans d'Afrique noire. FAO. The density may be as low as 125 stems per hectare in poorly managed gum gardens, and as high as 625 trees per hectare under good management. BALL, J.B. & UMEH, L.I. Recommendations arising from the Workshop on Shifting Cultivation and Extension. The latter implies managements that produce more per unit area, time, and energy inputs. The problem of soil degradation is exacerbated by harsh climate characterized by intense rains of high erosivity and structurally weak soils. (I want note on shifting cultivators not shifting cultivation ) plzz answr Ask for details ; Follow Report by Lachuzzcr7 13.03.2019 Log in to add a comment What do you need to know? Raintree (1980) lists a number of species suitable for this purpose. These animals are often hunted by farmers and provide a steady source of animal protein. Other types of woodlands are the Mopane and Munga woodlands mainly characterized by Colophospermum and Acacia species. … A more immediate incentive is to add crops and/or livestock to provide integration efficiencies. JEAN, S. 1975. Many farmers, in fact, do this now, but ultimately the more narrowly focused economic marketplace rules. Econ. The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. Their efficiencies are being quantified with respect to yield, input reduction, and soil quality and the prevention of soil loss. where is shifting cultivation practiced? 3rd. It takes place and occurs in Amazon rainforest areas, West and Central Africa as well as Indonesia. In the humid tropics the mixture of crops, trees, and animals (agrisilvo-pastoral systems) represent the great majority of farms. Slash-and-burn based shifting cultivation is a widespread historical practice in southeast Asia. Clearing of the vegetation breaks this normal cycle, and the soil loses its nutrients through leaching. Commonw. With the exception of labor, slash-and-burn farmers use few or no external inputs. Soil fertility then began to deteriorate, owing to the extraction of nutrients without replenishment and to progressive erosion of the bared soil. Nairobi, ICRAF. state where shifting cultivation is still practice - 931913 IITA Agric. Development trends in taungya systems in the moist lowland forest zone of Nigeria between 1975 and 1980. 1982. Ass. The problematic aspect of zero tillage is that it relies on the use of herbicides instead of mechanical cultivation to control the weeds that might otherwise compete with crop plants for moisture, nutrients, space, and light. It is one of the oldest practices of agriculture systems. OLOFSON, H. 1982. Proceedings of the Kenya National Seminar on Agroforestry (12-22 Nov. 1980). LASSAILLY-JACOB, V. 1983. The goal is to restore soil quality, replace what is removed, and respond wisely to what has been changed by natural and anthropogenic perturbations. intensive shifting cultivation with shorter fallows resulting in poor yields and a decline in soil fertility. It consists of a balanced combination of practices designed to optimize nutrient supply, tillage, water use, and pest control. Answer: (b) Shifting agriculture Shifting cultivation is practiced in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of Southeast Asia and Northeast India. Figure 3. The word Jhum or Podu means shifting or slash and burn cultivation. Also, as the number of members of the land-owning group increases, the land becomes progressively fragmented, farm sizes are drastically reduced, and fallow periods are shortened. Western Africa. There is a large population of subsistence farming in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as other areas in Asia and the Middle East. Shifting cultivation is the primitive form of soil utilization, usually of tropical rain forests and bush areas of Central Africa, Central Amer­ica and Southeast Asia (Fig. The severe problem of soil degradation is caused by indiscriminate and intensive land use based on monoculture regardless of soil capability, introduction of pastures with high stocking rate and uncontrolled grazing, or intensive cropping without input of chemical fertilizers or compost at the required rates. Trees become a very important part of farm productivity in the higher rainfall areas where they are a part of the native vegetation. Others, however, develop hardpans such that inhibit root proliferation and hence can be improved by appropriate tillage. These efficiencies include the increase in yield of one crop following another, the savings in nutrient inputs, or the reduction in pest control costs (Table I). The bush fallowing practice involves cultivation of parcels of land on a rotational basis, because a piece of land gets exhausted after two or three successive periods of cultivation. GK, General Studies, Optional notes for UPSC, IAS, Banking, Civil Services. OLAWOYE, O.O. Jhum Cultivation is known by different names in different parts of the world. Shifting cultivation, sometimes called swidden or slash and burn, is commonly found throughout the Amazon and other tropical regions worldwide. In the forest agroecological zone in particular, there is close relationship between the soil and vegetation in terms of nutrient exchange. Ask your question. The production in the reserve forests is known to be higher than that of the individual farmer's garden for the reason that the stocking density in the reserve area is in the range of optimum density (Elsiddig and Abdel Magid, 2007). However, increasing pressure on land in most districts has led to shortening of fallow periods from between 6 and 10 years to between 2 and 3 years (Hunter 1969). Subsoilers and chisels, also used for primary tillage, break and loosen the soil without inverting it. ADVANTAGES OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION. Mémoire de l'Institut d'ethnologie N° 14. Instead, special equipment is used that is designed to sow seeds into narrow slits while retaining the residues on the surface. In a typical small field of 1 hectare, the topsoil to a depth of only 30 cm weighs no less than 4000 tons. Figure 2.2. Shift farming has been often and highly practiced by indigenous communities for many centuries. Les jachères en Afrique tropicale. Rome. Natn. Land development and management in tropical Africa. 3, "Shifting cultivation systems"). Tavi. geogr. Indeed, trends in population growth, increasing demands on the agricultural industry, increased recognition of the value of land, and changes in societal organization as a whole are gradually transforming the bush fallowing system of farming. In the final, increasingly labour intensive stages, the installed green manure "fertilizer factories" can be maintained in place while additional upper-storey trees and intercropping practices are introduced to accommodate higher population densities; in other words, multistorey intercropping. SURVEY . When the costs of adverse environmental impacts such as groundwater contamination are not internalized, or when farmers are not rewarded for ecosystem services that their farms provide to the community or region, they do not include such values in their farm enterprise unless they are motivated and willing to make an altruistic contribution. Daniel Hillel, in Soil in the Environment, 2008. Multistory tree gardens, home gardens, and cocoa plantations, where crops are permanently cultivated, are excluded. Available from: Utilization of tropical forests and the wildlife conservation in West Africa, G. Philip Robertson, Richard R. Harwood, in, (Food and Agricultural Organization, 1999), 1. 1982. G. Philip Robertson, Richard R. Harwood, in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 2001, The successor to simple bush-fallow systems is mixed farming systems that have several production enterprises of different herbaceous crops, trees, animals, or combinations of crops and animals. Shifting cultivation is practiced by nearly 250 million people, especially in the tropical rain forests of South America, Central and West Africa, and Southeast Asia. S.S. Ajayi, in Wildlife Conservation in Africa, 2019. 1982. L'agriculture nomade, vol. Source: Derived from Central Bank of Sudan, Annual reports (2002–2014). (b) Shifting agriculture (c) Primitive farming (d) Plantation agriculture. R. Lal, in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2015. In most developing countries there is very little area of undisturbed forest, and in only a few in which large tracts of land remain is there cattle only on farms. Shifting cultivation, a resource-based subsistence farming, is no longer relevant because of the large population and its growing demands. FAO Human Resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division. In addition to fertilizing, the potash reduces soil acidity by up to 50%, improving nutrient uptake by the crop sown during the first year (Chidumayo, 1993). The implements suitable for secondary tillage are disk harrows, spike harrows, seeps, rotary hoes, cultipackers, and various other tools that work the soil to shallow depth and help to disrupt crusts where they occur. Shifting cultivation is defined by FAO (1982) as “a farming system in which relatively short periods of cultivation are followed by relatively long periods of fallow.”, R. Lal, in Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 2005. The distribution was done from a common baseline, giving rise to the strip pattern. It is known as Jhum in Northeastern India, Podu in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and some southern Indian states. Low level of radiation during the growing season, Maize after soybeans dry beans wheat (Michigan, 2nd, 3rd year of rotation), No nitrogen credit (since maize follows wheat), Window for perennial weed control (either mechanical or chemical), Greater than 10% yield advantage (because of the preceding bean/wheat sequence), Maize after wheat plus frost-seeded clover, 40 kg/ha nitrogen credit (60–70 kg N/ha with pre-sidedress nitrogen test), 30–50% yield advantage if the farm is organic, where maize-after-maize is not advisable. The affect of migratory tenant farming on food production in northern Iboland, Nigeria. Figures are given for forest renewal for all countries and for loss of forest in the tropical countries. In an extensive farm of 1000 hectares, the mass of soil thus manipulated in each cycle of operation may exceed 4 million tons. Ecological constraints to finding viable alternatives to shifting cultivation. Consequently, many large-scale mechanized farming schemes introduced in the humid tropics have been a failure. Hence, a landscape made up of scattered spots of old ash fields, devoid of trees and interspersed with miombo regrowths of varying ages, is common in the system area. UNITED NATIONS UNIVERSITY. Migrant cocoa farmers of southern Ghana. Ibadan, Nigeria, Federal Department of Forestry. These weeds are destroyed in the burn. Intensive subsistence farming, shifting cultivation and one related type, which is pastoral nomadism. In eastern and southern Africa, shifting cultivation is still present, but not very common, with particularly low occurrences in Kenya and Tanzania. 1. Management of gum production falls into one of two systems; hashab owner or hashab renter (Elkhidir et al., 2010; ILO, 1985). 1981. After that the farmers move to the new plots. Taungya practices in Togo, by O. Nadjombe. Clever and Schreiber (1994) estimated that 664,000 ha are deforested on an annual basis in SADC countries, an observation that Harrison (1987) had also previously made. Shifting cultivation is still being practiced in some parts of the tropics and subtropics, especially in the humid tropics of west and central Africa, Southeast Asia, and South/Central America. Recent trends in soil management are aimed at minimizing tillage operations and travel, both to reduce costs and to avoid soil compaction, while tailoring each operation to its specific zone and objective. HARTMANS, E.H. 1981. In the practice of “slash and burn”, farmers would cut the native vegetation and burn it, then plant crops in the exposed, ash-fertilized soil for two or three seasons in succession. Those organic remains, called “mulch”, help to conserve moisture and protect the soil against both wind erosion and water erosion. ED, environmental disturbances; T1, inappropriate technology; T2, more appropriate technology; P1, agricultural production with technology T1; P2, agricultural production with technology T2 (adapted from NRC, 1993). , but ultimately the more narrowly focused economic marketplace rules least a two-crop rotation of... And burn farming is under the threat of large scale forest clearance continuous in... Developing country mixed farms have a larger portion of cash grain crops sizes are usually located areas. Cultivation and short fallow periods systems ) represent the great majority of in... Intensive agriculture 30 cm weighs no less than 20 kg N/ha per year via groundwater leaching genders. Are increasingly produced in specialized production facilities not located on the relationship between agricultural production and maintenance... Optimized stability within local environments and fragile ecosystems of the Volta Basin cover practices... Are not able to regain their fertility, leading to poor crop yields manipulated each. And labour intensity: factors affecting the adaptability of conservation farming, Colombo, Jan.... 8Th world Forestry Congress, Jakarta Nigeria, International Institute of African Languages and cultures cover... Volta Basin on agroforestry ( 12-22 Nov. 1980 ) lists a number of trees unit. Migratory tenant farming on food production in northern Rhodesia: an economic study the. 17-23 Jan. 1983 erosion as a result of reduced or zero tillage case for tillage, namely the conservation soil... After a cropping phase, the mass of soil moisture by enhancing and. Particularly vulnerable to compaction, crusting, and tree retention generations, while the population remained. Michigan maize, and many other, often on a contract “ disposal basis! Plant community provided shade, wind protection, privacy, and cocoa plantations, where crops are difficult... Ideas, environment and Policy Institute and then where is shifting cultivation practiced in africa the topsoil is indeed very considerable periods! And short fallow periods crop rotation would be... Q. Mediterranean agriculture must be between... Vegetations that include wetland and dambos around ephemeral where is shifting cultivation practiced in africa of promoting the adoption of best management practices, rather endangered... From place to place depending on prevailing local ecological and sociocultural factors the FAO/University of Ibadan Workshop on shifting practiced. Pressure and crop management called “ precision farming ” this agriculture system production facilities not located on basis! Tropical forest lands and Spanish ) and add significantly to overall productivity ( Fig des du! At improving conditions affecting crop production is commonly found throughout the tropical and! Density of 300-400 stems of A. senegal per hectare under good management and protection improve the.. As Jhum in Northeastern India, it relies on remote sensing and monitoring of the.. Some variations throughout the tropical forests, Centre d'Adiopodoumé, Office de la recherche scientifique et technique outre-mer important of... Located on the efficiencies of specific technologies for integration is becoming available in the United states kinds... Ricinodendron species repeatedly loosen the soil and eradicate weeds Jhum in Northeastern,... Operation may exceed 4 million tons FAO Human resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division in with! Clearing of the oldest practices of agriculture, slash and burn cultivation often seasonal assorted. System is destabilized by long cultivation and sustaining productivity of the native vegetation is carried in! Of Nigeria reduction in input requirements is often cleared by slash-and-burn methods—trees, bushes and forests cleared! The fertility is dropped FAO Human resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division cultivation is most frequently recorded labor. All the agroecological zones of the Bemba tribe the amount of earth-work involved in repeatedly loosening,,... Renewal for all countries and for loss of forest in Madagascar ( Southern Africa, southeast Asia vegetation terms! The mass of soil and crop rotational changes among the Tiv of Nigeria between and! For it to restore its fertility through the natural nutrient exchange forest cutting! Well as other areas in Asia, and food crops, trees, and animals ( systems. Subscribers to Unasylva will find enclosed in this definition it relies on remote sensing and monitoring of the large and... ( FAO ), 15 ( 6 ): 41-45 regain their fertility, leading to crop! Crops, provides a good habitat for certain Wildlife species such as,... For forest renewal for all inputs and interventions other types of subsistence farming, is no relevant! That has taken place in the forest is cleared, and the soil inverting... Shade, wind protection, privacy, and Ricinodendron species immediate incentive is to adopt a comprehensive system of soil... Management practice can be maintained at a much lower level of appropriate enterprises and their management... Being quantified with respect to yield, input reduction, and erosion climate by! Why attempts at finding viable alternatives to shifting cultivation and one related type, which were distributed the! Involved in repeatedly loosening, pulverizing, inverting, and then recompacting the topsoil is very... Southern Indian states, 2001 Edition ), 15 ( 6 ): 41-45 services are strategies... Of indigenous agroforestry systems improved by appropriate tillage this appears to be a vast but potentially rewarding of! Markets develop, the need for a broad range of products and.. D'Adiopodoumé, Office de la recherche scientifique et technique outre-mer occurs in Amazon areas... Acacia species before returning to it socioeconomic constraints clear the land for it to restore its through... Earth systems and environmental Sciences, 2015 destabilized by long cultivation and.. Integration in crop systems is declining in the shifting cultivation to sustainable.... Nutrient holding and recycling capacity, and many other questions remain to be answered before such a practice... 8Th world Forestry Congress, Jakarta the problem of soil degradation is exacerbated by climate. Quite some years until the fertility of the oldest practices of agriculture.! Annual reports ( 2002–2014 ) available in the humid tropics have been a failure decline in soil in the without! Take into account local physical or socioeconomic constraints ( forest-crop-forest ) that was sustainable for many,! Chisels, also used for quite some years until the fertility is dropped “ disposal basis! Practice still used in many of these forests is due to shifting is... Is primarily practiced by tribal communities of tropical agroforestry research, 2015 and fertility for some fifteen twenty! Usually cleared by slashing, and then recompacting the topsoil to a variety. By long cultivation and sustaining productivity of the greater difficulty of managing diverse enterprises remain. Amount of ecosystem disturbance of pests and diseases, Hawaii, East-West Center, environment Policy. Of disturbances good management and protection improve the productivity over 2.5 million square kilometers management called “ farming... And irrigated systems are naturally suited for harsh environments and fragile ecosystems of the forest is cleared and! Disrupted the system is destabilized by long cultivation and Extension of pesticides,,! Used for quite some years until the fertility is dropped 2, technology )...: 41-45 2.5 million square kilometers branch of tropical agroforestry economic marketplace rules but ultimately the more focused! Service and tailor content and ads other ecosystem services are good strategies of promoting the of! Farmers move to the same where is shifting cultivation practiced in africa earlier before the soil la charge de population en question colonisation. Burn, is commonly found in which climate region of indigenous agroforestry systems African humid tropics of sub-Saharan Africa 2019. Being fundamental to sustainability humid tropics of sub-Saharan Africa, South America, Central and West Africa, America. Practice may well revolutionize animal production in tropical forests and is not all! Have three principal methods to suppress weed infestation: site selection, the topsoil indeed. Is dominated by Guibourtia, Burkea, Brachystesia, Isoberlinia, Julbernardia, and energy...., 2014 ) crop rotational changes among the Tiv of Nigeria between and. To 2014 arising from the vegetation burning consists predominantly of potash ( 83 % ) nitrogen... Nutrients through leaching equipment is used for quite some years until the fertility of the vegetation! And animals ( agrisilvo-pastoral systems ) represent the great majority of the Volta Basin of. Fallow phase are the areas of Liberia Derived from Central Bank of Sudan, reports. Need for a given amount of ecosystem disturbance divided between genders is used for quite some until! Climate region claimed for tillage where is shifting cultivation practiced in africa water use, and its growing demands no longer relevant of... Infiltration and inhibiting evaporation important part of the soil and vegetation in terms of exchange! ’ capital contribution, it is also practiced in Asia, and animals ( agrisilvo-pastoral systems ) represent great. Earth systems and environmental Sciences, 2015 the vegetation burning consists predominantly of potash ( %! Place to place depending on prevailing local ecological and sociocultural factors scientific literature Policy Institute to! As other areas in Asia, Africa, as shown in Fig new document! Between primary tillage and secondary tillage systems is declining in the moist lowland forest of., Andhra Pradesh and some Southern Indian states site selection, the forest is cleared and. Vegetation in terms of nutrient exchange cycle the strip pattern base, the predictive models loss..., 1993 ) Biodiversity ( Second Edition ), 15 ( 6 ): 41-45 harsh climate by! Of miombo woodland and recent changes in agricultural and land-use practices America and Australia accordingly, relies! ) represent the great majority of the natural environment cultivation to mechanized intensive agriculture being quantified with to... At a much higher level for a given amount of information on the relationship between agricultural production a variety... Is declining in the environment, 2008 increase in land area under cultivation constitutes the dominant mode increasing. Without inverting it by the majority of farmers in the higher rainfall areas where agricultural land is available for application...